Which of the following factors affects spelling performance the least?

The correct answer is that exposure to written text affects spelling performance the least compared to the other factors listed. While exposure to written text plays a role in developing overall literacy skills, it does not directly influence spelling as significantly as the other factors do.

Phonemic awareness, for instance, is crucial for understanding how sounds in words correspond to letters and letter combinations, making it essential for spelling proficiency. It involves the ability to identify and manipulate the individual sounds in words, which is vital for decoding and encoding text.

Language background also has a substantial impact; students who come from different language backgrounds may have varying levels of exposure to English phonetics and orthography, influencing their spelling skills.

Visual memory contributes to spelling as well because it helps individuals remember how specific words are spelled visually, often aiding in retention and recall of the correct spelling of words.

In summary, while exposure to written text can support spelling development, it does not have as direct an influence on spelling performance as phonemic awareness, language background, and visual memory do. Each of these other factors plays a more interactive and foundational role in developing effective spelling skills.